why it matters: the preschool years

physical Growth in the preschool years 

During the years of ages three to five we see significant changes in the way children look, think, communicate, regulate their emotions, and interact with others. Children are often referred to as preschoolers during this time period. We’ll examine the physical changes of the preschooler in this chapter. 

 

(Government of Saskatchewan, 2015)

Indigenous Perspectives

Indigenous children love to dance with or without their Regalia (outfits). Their spirit soars when they dance. It gives them a sense of belonging and connects them to mother earth. It also reinforces what the Continuum of Development says [the development of gross motor skills focuses on increasing coordination, speed, and endurance]. As they have been watching the adults dance, young children’s dance movements really improve at this age.

 

Here are some activities focused on play that young children enjoy and that support their gross motor skill development.

• Tricycle

• Slides
• Swings
• Sit-n-Spin
• Mini trampoline
• Bowling pins (can use plastic soda bottles also)

• Tent (try throwing blankets over chairs and other furniture to make a fort)
• Playground ladders
• Suspension bridge on playground
• Tunnels (try throwing a bean bag chair underneath for greater challenge)
• Ball play (kick, throw, catch)

• Simon Says
• Target games with bean bags, ball, etc.
• Dancing/moving to music
• Pushing self on scooter or skateboard while on stomach

^{Child riding a bicycle. (Photo by Chip Vincent on Unsplash)}

“Many people believe that young children automatically acquire and perfect motor skill, such as running, jumping, and throwing, as their bodies develop, that it is a natural process that occurs with physical maturation…. But maturation takes care of only part of the process – the part that allows a child to execute most of the movement skills at an immature or beginning level…. When children don’t get the help, they need to learn physical skills, many never fully master gross (large muscle) motor skills” (Pica, 2008, p. 48, as cited in Government of Saskatchewan, 2015, p. 29) .

Fine motor skills and milestones

Fine motor skills are also being refined as they continue to develop more dexterity, strength, and endurance. Fine motor skills are very important as they are foundational to self-help skills and later academic abilities (such as writing).

 

The development of fine motor skills focus on the following:

• Dressing: mastering simple items of clothing; dressing without assistance.
• Eating: eating using forks and knives.
• Tool Use: stringing large beads, cutting paper with scissors, cutting a straight line.
• Drawing: copying straight lines, copying triangles and crosses.

^{(Government of Saskatchewan, 2015)}

Here are some fun activities that will help children continue to refine their fine motor abilities. Fine motor skills are slower to develop than gross motor skills, so it is important to have age-appropriate expectations and play-based activities for children.

• Pouring water into a container
• Drawing and colouring

• Using scissors
• Finger painting
• Fingerplays and songs (such as the Itsy, Bitsy Spider)
• Play dough
• Lacing and beading

• Practicing with large tweezers, tongs, and eye droppers

^{Children colouring. (Image by Spangdahlem Air Base is in the public domain)}

In the Continuum of Development growth in this area may look like going from using an awkward grip to hold and use markers to having a skill grip.

Childhood obesity

Childhood obesity is a complex health issue. It is diagnosed when a child is well above the normal or healthy weight for their age and height. Childhood obesity is on the rise; obesity rates among children and youth in Canada have nearly tripled in the last 30 years (Government of Canada, 2019). Where people live can affect their ability to make healthy choices. Obesity disproportionally affects children from low-income families.

 

The causes of excess weight gain in young people are similar to those in adults, including factors such as a person’s behaviour and genetics. Behaviours that influence excess weight gain include:

• eating high calorie, low-nutrient foods
• not getting enough physical exercise
• sedentary activities (such as watching television or other screen devices)

• medication use
• sleep routines

^{A child using an electronic devise instead of playing. (Photo by zhenzhong liu on Unsplash)}

The consequences of childhood obesity are both immediate and long-term. It can affect physical as well as social and emotional well-being.

More immediate Health Risks:

• High blood pressure and high cholesterol, which are risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD).
• Increased risk of impaired glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes.
• breathing challenges, such as asthma and sleep apnea.
• Joint problems and musculoskeletal discomfort.
• Fatty liver disease, gallstones, and gastro-esophageal reflux (i.e., heartburn).

 

Childhood Obesity is also related to: 

• Psychological challenges, such as anxiety and depression.
• Low self-esteem and lower self-reported quality of life.
• Social problems such as bullying and stigma.

 

Future Health Risks: 

• Children who have obesity are more likely to become adults with obesity. Adult obesity is associated with increased risk of a number of serious health conditions including heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and cancer. 
• If children have obesity, their obesity and disease risk factors in adulthood are likely to be more severe.

 

To fight off the risk of obesity in preschool aged children, the Government of Canada (2019) suggests that caregivers support children in developing healthy eating habits and encourage physical activity. They suggest the following:

Tips for developing healthy eating habits: 

• Use the Canada Food Guide to plan meals/snacks.
• Set a good example by being a role model for healthy eating. Children are more likely to try new foods if you eat them too.
• Limit distracted eating by keeping the food at the meal the focus.
• Involve children in planning and preparing meals and snacks.

 

Tips for encouraging physical activity: 

• Aim for at least 180 minutes spent in a variety of physical activities spread throughout the day, including at least 60 minutes of energetic play (CSEP, 2021),
• Set a good example by being a role model for participating in consistent physical activity.
• Limit the amount of time your children spend on sedentary activities like watching television, playing video games, and surfing the web.

food allergies

According to Food Allergy Canada (2021),

• more than 3 million Canadians self-report having at least one food allergy.
• almost 500,000 Canadian children under 18 years have food allergies.
• peanut allergies in Canada affect about 2 in 100 children.

 

A food allergy occurs when the body has a specific and reproducible immune response to certain foods. Although the immune system normally protects people from germs, in people with food allergies, the immune system mistakenly responds to food as if it were harmful. The body’s immune response can be mild, moderate, severe or life-threatening. An example of a severe or life-threatening response would be anaphylaxis. Anaphylaxis is a sudden and severe allergic reaction that may cause death.  Children at risk of anaphylaxis will likely have immediate access to an epinephrine auto-injector (e.g. EpiPen®, ALLERJECT®) which contains life-saving medication to treat an allergic reaction. Under Sabrina’s Law, every school board in Ontario is required to establish and maintain an anaphylactic policy. The law also requires schools to create individual plans for each child at risk of anaphylaxis.

Symptoms of anaphylaxis generally include two or more of these body systems. 

•  Skin: hives, swelling (face, lips, tongue), itching, warmth, redness
• Respiratory (breathing): coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, chest pain/tightness, throat tightness, hoarse voice, nasal congestion or hay fever-like symptoms (runny itchy nose and watery eyes, sneezing), trouble swallowing
• Gastrointestinal (stomach): nausea, pain/cramps, vomiting, diarrhea
• Cardiovascular (heart): paler than normal skin colour/blue colour, weak pulse, passing out, dizziness or lightheadedness, shock
• Other: anxiety, sense of doom (the feeling that something bad is about to happen), headache, uterine cramps, metallic taste

^{(Food Allergy Canada, 2021)}

Some preschool children may not have diagnosed food allergies, rather suffer from food intolerances. A food intolerance is the inability to digest or absorb certain foods. For example, someone with lactose intolerance doesn’t have enough of the enzyme lactase to break down the sugar (lactose) in dairy products. The symptoms of food intolerance affect the gastrointestinal tract and can cause discomfort but are generally not life-threatening (Food Allergy Canada, 2021).

Indigenous Perspectives

Poverty and the lack of access to healthy foods affect all remote Indigenous communities in Canada. Healthy foods are so expensive that poor families cannot afford it. The following link opens a paper on Tackling Poverty in Indigenous Communities in Canada   The following blog The Challenge of Feeding the North discusses food insecurity in remote communities in Canada This is a problem that has been at the forefront since Indigenous people have been placed on reservations. 

oral health

According to the Ontario Dental Hygienist’s Association (n.d.), teeth are an integral part of overall health and with proper care people can keep their teeth for a lifetime. Preschool aged children should be encouraged to build healthy eating habits to protect their teeth and encouraged to brush their teeth twice a day. When teeth are not well taken care of, children can suffer from oral infections and early childhood cavities (ECC). ECC is a severe form of tooth decay in the primary teeth of infants and toddlers. It affects more than 10% of preschool-age children in Canada. ECC can be caused by passing bacteria from the parent/caregiver to the child (e.g., through kisses, sharing toothbrushes, food and utensils), the amount of sugar and starches in the diet, and the time and frequency of feedings.

Tips to support positive oral care in preschool aged children: 

• At this stage caregivers should still need to supervise and help children brush and floss properly. The parent can check after the child has brushed.

• The best way to check the child’s mouth after brushing is to stand behind the child so that both

           are facing the mirror. Lift the lip to assess the gums and the back teeth.

• Toothpaste with fluoride should only be used when the child can rinse and spit properly because swallowing toothpaste with fluoride can permanently stain a child’s adult teeth. Use only a small amount of toothpaste (pea-size or smaller).
• Encourage regular brushing and flossing as the child gets older.

 

^{A dentist checking a child’s teeth. (Image by Keesler Air Force Base is in the public domain)}

 

safety

Childhood injury is defined as “the physical damage that results when a human body is subjected to energy that exceeds the threshold of physiological tolerance or results in lack of one or more vital elements, such as oxygen” (Canadian Pediatric Society, 2020).

Through statistics shared via the Canadian Pediatric Society (2020),

• In Canada, injury is the leading cause of death for not only children, but for all Canadians between the ages of one and 44.
• Between 1994 and 2003, approximately 390 Canadian children age 14 years and under died from unintentional injuries annually, while another 25,500 were hospitalized.
• In 2004, injuries to Canadians cost $19.8 billion in health care costs and lost productivity, of which $16.0 billion resulted from unintentional causes. Of this, almost $3 billion could be accounted for by falls and transport-related injuries to children and youth from birth to 19 years of age.

 

The most common causes of injury in preschool aged children are due to the following: 

• Falls: Falls are the leading cause of injury in preschool aged children. Examples of how falls can occur are as follows: on the stairs and steps, off furniture, by slipping, tripping and stumbling, by using furniture to climb out windows or balconies, by not using age appropriate playground equipment, and/or on hard surfaces.

• Choking, strangulation and suffocation are leading causes of injury-related deaths for children in Canada. Children can be harmed by: choking on food and small objects, strangling from items such as ropes, blind cords, or draw strings in clothing, suffocating in cribs or beds, being left in a car.
• Burns: A child’s skin burns four times faster and deeper than an adult’s at the same temperature. Common causes of burns include: scalds from steam, hot water, tipped-over coffee cups, hot foods or cooking fluids, contact with flames or other hot objects such as curling iron or fireplace, chemical burns from items such as batteries or bleach, electrical burns from biting on electrical cords or sticking fingers or objects into outlets, too much exposure to the sun.
• Poisoning: Half of all poison exposures happen to children under five years of age. Common poisonous products: medications, household cleaners, alcohol, plants, fertilizers, pesticides, paint thinner, antifreeze, carbon monoxide
• Drowning or near drowning: All children are at risk for drowning but children under age five have a higher risk. It can happen quickly and silently in only a few centimetres of water.

^{(City of Toronto, 2021)}

Childhood injuries are preventable. It is important for caregivers to consistently and thoroughly supervise young children. 

^{Children playing on a jungle gym at a park. (Image is in the public domain)}

cognitive development in preschool years

Cognitive Development in the preschool years is more than simply memorizing letters and numbers. Children learn best when they are actively engaged in meaningful, play-based experiences that encourage curiosity, exploration, and problem solving. Educators support this learning by creating rich environments, asking thoughtful questions, and building on what children already know. When children are interested and emotionally engaged, they are more likely to develop deeper understanding and retain their learning.

Preschool cognitive skills

language development

Children can repeat words and phrases after having heard them only once or twice. But they do not always understand the meaning of the words or phrases. This is especially true of expressions or figures of speech that are taken literally. For example, a supply educator explains that he is working with them because their regular educator has ‘lost their voice’. The children, with great concern, want to know where they lost it and if they will find it again. Or a classroom full of preschoolers hears the teacher say “Wow! That was a piece of cake!” The children begin asking “Cake? Who took it? Are we having cake? “

Children learn rules of grammar as they learn a language but may apply these rules inappropriately at first. For instance, a child learns to add “ed” to the end of a word to indicate past tense. Then form a sentence such as “I goed there. I doed that.” This is typical at ages 2 and 3. They will soon learn new words such as “went” and “did” to be used in those situations. 

Remember Vygotsky and the zone of proximal development? Children can be assisted in learning language by others who listen attentively, model more accurate pronunciations and encourage elaboration. The child exclaims, “I goed there!” and the adult responds, “You went there? Say, ‘I went there.’ Where did you go?” Children may be ripe for language as Chomsky suggests, but active participation in helping them learn is important for language development as well. The process of scaffolding is one in which the adult (or more skilled peer) provides needed assistance to the child as a new skill is learned. 

communicating with others

Early childhood education Programs

Head Start programs are early childhood initiatives designed to support school readiness and overall development in young children through comprehensive services that include education, health, nutrition, and family support. These programs take a holistic approach, recognizing the importance of supporting both children and their families to promote long-term success (Saskatoon Tribal Council, n.d.)   Aboriginal Head Start programs in Canada are community-based early intervention programs that support the spiritual, emotional, intellectual, and physical development of First Nations, Inuit, and Métis children and their families. These programs emphasize cultural identity, language, and community involvement, and are guided by six core components: culture and language, education, health promotion, nutrition, social support, and parental involvement (Saskatchewan Aboriginal Head Start Council, n.d.).

In Saskatchewan, the Play and Exploration: Early Learning Program Guide emphasizes that young children learn best through play in responsive, relationship-based environments that support holistic development (Government of Saskatchewan, 2008). This guide provides educators with resources and guidance to incorporate the principles of Early Learning in their practice, and the knowledge that children are capable learners and how play can facilitate meaningful experiences to support holistic development.

emotional and social development in the preschool years

In the preschool years, children’s understanding of themselves continues to evolve. Children’s understanding of their role in the world expands greatly. The following section will example some of the of the important interactions in emotional and social development between the ages of 2.5 and 6 years.

Interactionism and Views of Self

Early childhood is a time of forming an initial sense of self. A self-concept or idea of who we are, what we are capable of doing, and how we think and feel is a social process that involves taking into consideration how others view us. So, in order to develop a sense of self, you must have interaction with others. Interactionist theorists, Cooley and Mead offer two interesting explanations of how a sense of self develops.

Charles Horton Cooley (1964, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021) suggests that our self-concept comes from looking at how others respond to us. This process, known as the looking-glass self involves looking at how others seem to view us and interpreting this as we make judgments about whether we are good or bad, strong or weak, beautiful or ugly, and so on. Of course, we do not always interpret their responses accurately so our self-concept is not simply a mirror reflection of the views of others. After forming an initial self-concept, we may use it as a mental filter screening out those responses that do not seem to fit our ideas of who we are. Some compliments may be negated, for example. The process of the looking-glass self is pronounced when we are preschoolers, or perhaps when we are in a new school or job or are taking on a new role in our personal lives and are trying to gauge our own performances. When we feel more sure of who we are, we focus less on how we appear to others (Leon, n.d.).

A child looking at herself wearing glasses in a mirror. (Image is in the public domain)

Herbert Mead (1967, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021) offers an explanation of how we develop a social sense of self by being able to see ourselves through the eyes of others. There are two parts of the self: the “I” which is the part of the self that is spontaneous, creative, innate, and is not concerned with how others view us and the “me” or the social definition of who we are.

When we are born, we are all “I” and act without concern about how others view us. But the socialized self begins when we are able to consider how one important person views us. This initial stage is called “taking the role of the significant other”. For example, a child may pull a cat’s tail and be told by their mother, “No! Don’t do that, that’s bad” while receiving a slight slap on the hand. Later, the child may mimic the same behavior toward the self and say aloud, “No, that’s bad” while patting his own hand. What has happened? The child is able to see themself through the eyes of the mother. As the child grows and is exposed to many situations and rules of culture, he begins to view the self in the eyes of many others through these cultural norms or rules. This is referred to as “taking the role of the generalized other” and results in a sense of self with many dimensions. The child comes to have a sense of self as a student, as a friend, as a child, and so on.

One of the ways to gain a clearer sense of self is to exaggerate those qualities that are to be incorporated into the self. Preschoolers often like to exaggerate their own qualities or to seek validation as the biggest, smartest, or child who can jump the highest. This exaggeration tends to be replaced by a more realistic sense of self in middle childhood.

Early childhood is a time of forming an initial sense of self. Self-concept is our self-description according to various categories, such as our external and internal qualities. In contrast, self-esteem is an evaluative judgment about who we are. The emergence of cognitive skills in this age group results in improved perceptions of the self, but they tend to focus on external qualities, which are referred to as the categorical self. When researchers ask young children to describe themselves, their descriptions tend to include physical descriptors, preferred activities, and favorite possessions. Thus, the self-description of a 3-year-old might be a 3-year-old girl with red hair, who likes to play with blocks. However, even children as young as three know there is more to themselves than these external characteristics.

Harter and Pike (1984, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021) challenged the method of measuring personality with an open-ended question as they felt that language limitations were hindering the ability of young children to express their self-knowledge. They suggested a change to the method of measuring self-concept in young children, whereby researchers provide statements that ask whether something is true of the child (e.g., “I like to boss people around”, “I am grumpy most of the time”). They discovered that in early childhood, children answer these statements in an internally consistent manner, especially after the age of four (Goodvin, Meyer, Thompson & Hayes, 2008, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021) and often give similar responses to what others (parents and teachers) say about the child (Brown, Mangelsdorf, Agathen, & Ho, 2008; Colwell & Lindsey, 2003, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021).

Young children tend to feel good about themselves. (Photo by Lukas Rychvalsky on Unsplash)

Young children tend to have a generally positive self-image. This optimism is often the result of a lack of social comparison when making self-evaluations (Ruble, Boggiano, Feldman, & Loeble, 1980, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021), and with comparison between what the child once could do to what they can do now (Kemple, 1995). However, this does not mean that preschool children are exempt from negative self-evaluations. Preschool children with insecure attachments to their caregivers tend to have lower self-esteem at age four (Goodvin et al., 2008, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). Maternal negative affect (emotional state) was also found by Goodwin and her colleagues to produce more negative self-evaluations in preschool children.

Self-control is not a single phenomenon but is multi-faceted. It includes response initiation, the ability to not initiate a behavior before you have evaluated all of the information, response inhibition, the ability to stop a behavior that has already begun, and delayed gratification, the ability to hold out for a larger reward by forgoing a smaller immediate reward (Dougherty, Marsh, Mathias, & Swann, 2005. as cited in Lally & Valentine-French, 2019). It is in early childhood that we see the start of self-control, a process that takes many years to fully develop. In the famous “Marshmallow Test” (Mischel, Ebbesen, & Zeiss, 1972, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021) children aged 3-5 years are confronted with the choice of a small immediate reward (a marshmallow) and a larger delayed reward (more marshmallows). Children who were able to distract themselves from thinking about how much they wanted the delayed reward were more likely to be able to wait for the reward. In follow-up research, Walter Mischel and colleagues over the years have found that the ability to delay gratification at the age of four predicted better academic performance and health later in life (Mischel, et al., 2011, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). Self-control is related to executive function;  as executive function improves, children become less impulsive (Traverso, Viterbori, & Usai, 2015, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021).

Attempts to replicate the findings of the original “Marshmallow Test”  as well as Mischel’s follow-up research have been inconsistent. The “Marshmallow Test” has been criticized because of the small sample size (50 children) and because the children all came from wealthy families with well-educated parents.

Dr. Stuart Shanker believes that the “Marshmallow Test” is actually a stress test.  He suggests that a lack of self-control is a symptom of stress. This view is consistent with other critics of the “Marshmallow Test” who believe the results should not be applied to less affluent populations. For example, a child who comes to school hungry because they live in a food-insecure family is experiencing physical stress that would make it very difficult to wait for a food reward instead of taking an immediate food reward. When we reduce stressors in a child’s life, their ability to control their own behaviour improves (Shanker’s concept of “self-regulation”).

Psychologist Erik Erikson argues that children in early childhood go through a stage of “initiative vs. guilt”. If the child is placed in an environment where they can explore, make decisions, and initiate activities, they have achieved initiative. On the other hand, if the child is put in an environment where initiation is repressed through criticism and control, they will develop a sense of guilt.

Figure 12.3: Children playing in the sand. (Image is in the public domain from Wikimedia Commons)

The trust and autonomy of previous stages develop into a desire to take initiative or to think of ideas and initiative action. Children may want to build a fort with the cushions from the living room couch or open a lemonade stand in the driveway or make a zoo with their stuffed animals and issue tickets to those who want to come. Or they may just want to get themselves ready for bed without any assistance. To reinforce taking initiative, caregivers should offer praise for the child’s efforts and avoid being critical of messes or mistakes. Soggy washrags and toothpaste left in the sink pales in comparison to the smiling face of a five-year-old that emerges from the bathroom with clean teeth and pajamas! (Leon, n.d.).

Gender Identity, Gender Constancy, and Gender Roles

Another important dimension of the self is the sense of self as male or female. Preschool-aged children become increasingly interested in finding out the differences between boys and girls both physically and in terms of what activities are acceptable for each. While 2-year-olds can identify some differences and learn whether they are boys or girls, preschoolers become more interested in what it means to be male or female. This self-identification or gender identity is followed sometime later with gender constancy or the knowledge that gender does not change. Gender roles or the rights and expectations that are associated with being male or female are learned throughout childhood and into adulthood.

Learning through Reinforcement and Modelling

Learning theorists suggest that gender role socialization is a result of the ways in which parents, extended family, teachers, friends, schools, religious institutions, media and others send messages about what is acceptable or desirable behaviour as males or females. This socialization begins early-in fact, it may even begin the moment a parent learns that a child is on the way. Knowing the sex of the child can conjure up images of the child’s behaviour, appearance, and potential on the part of some parents. And this stereotyping may continue to guide perception through life. Consider parents of newborns, shown a 7 pound, 20 inch baby, wrapped in blue (a colour associated with males in Western cultures) describe the child as tough, strong, and angry when crying. Shown the same infant in pink (a colour associated with baby girls in Western cultures), these parents are likely to describe the baby as pretty, delicate, and frustrated when crying. (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1987, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). In Western cultures, female infants may be held more, talked to more frequently and given direct eye contact, while male infants play is often mediated through a toy or activity.

Parents who hold traditional views of male and females gender roles are more likely to give sons tasks that take them outside the house and that have to be performed only on occasion while girls are more likely to be given chores inside the home such as cleaning or cooking that is performed daily. These parents may also encourage sons to think for themselves when they encounter problems while daughters are more likely to be given assistance even when they are working on an answer. This impatience is reflected in teachers waiting less time when asking a female student for an answer than when asking for a reply from a male student (Sadker and Sadker, 1994, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). Girls are given the message from teachers that they must try harder and endure in order to succeed while boys’ successes are attributed to their intelligence. Cultural gender role stereotypes can also influence which kinds of courses or vocational choices girls and boys are encouraged to make.

Friends discuss what is acceptable for boys and girls and popularity may be based on modelling what is considered ideal behaviour or looks for the sexes. Girls tend to tell one another secrets to validate others as best friends while boys compete for position by emphasizing their knowledge, strength or accomplishments. This focus on accomplishments can even give rise to exaggerating accomplishments in boys, but girls are discouraged from showing off and may learn to minimize their accomplishments as a result.

Gender messages abound in our environment. The Western stereotypes that boys should be strong, forceful, active, dominant, and rational and that girls should be pretty, subordinate, unintelligent, emotional, and gabby are portrayed in children’s toys, books, commercials, video games, movies, television shows and music.

In addition to being recipients of  Western cultural expectations, we are individuals who also modify these roles (Kimmel, 2008, as cited in Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). Based on what young children learn about gender from parents, peers, media and those who they observe and interact with in society, children develop their own conceptions of the attributes associated with maleness or femaleness which is referred to as gender schemas.

 Store shelves filled with pink and purple colors and girls’ toys. (Image by Janet McKnight is licensed under CC BY 2.0)

 Store shelves filled with primary colours and boys’ toys. (Image by Janet McKnight is licensed under CC BY 2.0)

Moral Development

Dr. Charles A. Smith, in the paper “Beyond ‘I’m Sorry”: The Emergence of Conscience in Young Children” defines conscience as “an internal voice that obliges us to act with kindness, respect, and fairness and to make things right as best we can when we do not” (Smith, n.d.). Brain development during the first three years of life enables the preschool-aged child to begin to understand the difference between right and wrong.  Emerging skills of self-control, compassion, sympathy and empathy also contribute to the development of a conscience. Parents, teachers and peers all play a role in helping children learn to care about themselves and others.

Preschoolers are beginning to be able to understand the difference between moral rules and social conventions. Moral rules are non-negotiable; for example, it is wrong to steal or murder. Social conventions are more arbitrary rules that a group has agreed upon; for example, standing in a line to board a bus. It is typical for children to test the limits of social conventions to learn what behavior is allowed and what will not be allowed. How adults respond to testing of limits is important. Dr. Smith believes “Preschool children do not fully understand the responsibility for repairing a wrong. Being forced to say, “I’m sorry” can become a magic incantation of absolution, as though words alone are enough to free them from the consequences of their choices” (Smith, n.d.). Children learn to truly care about others through their own relationships with caring adults.

Family Life

Relationships between parents and children continue to play a significant role in children’s development during early childhood. We will explore two models of parenting styles. Keep in mind that most parents do not follow any model completely. In reality,  people tend to fall somewhere in between these styles. And sometimes parenting styles change from one child to the next or in times when the parent has more or less time and energy for parenting. Parenting styles can also be affected by concerns the parent has in other areas of their life. For example, parenting styles tend to become more authoritarian when parents are tired and perhaps more authoritative when they are more energetic. Sometimes, parents seem to change their parenting approach when others are around, maybe because they become more self-conscious as parents or are concerned with giving others the impression that they are a “tough” parent or an “easy-going” parent. And of course, parenting styles may reflect the type of parenting someone saw modelled while growing up.

 A family playing outside together. (Image from Unsplash)

Diana Baumrind (1971, as cited in Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021) offers a model of parenting that includes four styles. The first, authoritarian, is the traditional model of parenting in which parents make the rules and children are expected to be obedient. Baumrind suggests that authoritarian parents tend to place maturity demands on their children that are unreasonably high and tend to be aloof and distant. Consequently, children reared in this way may fear rather than respect their parents and, because their parents do not allow discussion, may take out their frustrations on safer targets-perhaps as bullies toward peers.

Permissive parenting involves holding expectations of children that are below what could be reasonably expected from them. Children are allowed to make their own rules and determine their own activities. Parents are warm and communicative, but provide little structure for their children. Children fail to learn self-discipline and may feel somewhat insecure because they do not know the limits.

Authoritative parenting involves being appropriately strict, reasonable, and affectionate. Parents allow negotiation where appropriate and discipline matches the severity of the offense. In Ontario, many EarlyON Child and Family Centres offer parenting programs, including Triple P (Positive Parenting Program) and Nobody’s Perfect.

Uninvolved parents (also referred to as rejecting/neglecting) are disengaged from their children. They do not make demands on their children and are non-responsive. These children can suffer in school and in their relationships with their peers (Gecas & Self, 1991, as cited in Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021).

Cultural Influences on Parenting Styles

The impact of class and culture cannot be ignored when examining parenting styles. The two models of parenting described above assume that authoritative and athletic coaching styles are best because they are designed to help the parent raise a child who is independent, self-reliant and responsible. These are qualities favored in “individualistic” cultures.

Canadian First Nation cultural groups, while diverse, all stress the critical importance of parenting during the first seven years. “In addition to parenting our children, we also are parenting our grandchildren, those yet to be born.” (Best Start Resource Centre, 2010 ). Parents, extended family, elders and the community are all responsible for providing unconditional love and discipline. Children are encouraged to make their own decisions (from among acceptable choices) and allowed to make mistakes. Story-telling is used to help teach children important life lessons. Modeling desirable behavior is another key teaching tool. First Nations cultures strongly believe that children are to be treated as equals and never talked down, belittled or bribed as a form of discipline.

Figure 11.3: A family from a collectivistic culture. (Image by the National Cancer Institute from Unsplash)

In “collectivistic” cultures such as China or Korea, being obedient and compliant are favored behaviors. Authoritarian parenting has been used historically and reflects cultural need for children to do as they are told. In societies where family members’ cooperation is necessary for survival, as in the case of raising crops, rearing children who are independent and who strive to be on their own makes no sense. But in an economy based on being mobile in order to find jobs and where one’s earnings are based on education, raising a child to be independent is very important.

Working class parents are more likely than middle class parents to focus on obedience and honesty when raising their children. In a classic study on social class and parenting styles called Class and Conformity, Kohn (1977, as cited in Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021) explains that parents tend to emphasize qualities that are needed for their own survival when parenting their children. Working class parents are rewarded for being obedient, reliable, and honest in their jobs. They are not paid to be independent or to question the management; rather, they move up and are considered good employees if they show up on time, do their work as they are told, and can be counted on by their employers. Consequently, these parents reward honesty and obedience in their children.

Middle class parents who work as professionals are rewarded for taking initiative, being self-directed, and assertive in their jobs. They are required to get the job done without being told exactly what to do. They are asked to be innovative and to work independently. These parents encourage their children to have those qualities as well by rewarding independence and self-reliance. Parenting styles can reflect many elements of culture (Lumen Learning, n.d.).

Changing Families in a Changing Society

The sociology of the family examines the family as an institution and a unit of socialization. Sociological studies of the family look at demographic characteristics of the family members: family size, age, ethnicity and gender of its members, social class of the family, the economic level and mobility of the family, professions of its members, and the education levels of the family members.

Currently, one of the biggest issues that sociologists study are the changing roles of family members. Often, each member is restricted by the gender roles of the traditional family. These roles, such as the father as the breadwinner and the mother as the homemaker, are declining. Now, the mother is often the supplementary provider while retaining the responsibilities of child rearing. In this scenario, females’ role in the labor force is “compatible with the demands of the traditional family.” Sociology studies the adaptation of males’ role to caregiver as well as provider. The gender roles are becoming increasingly interwoven.

Sibling Relationships

Siblings typically spend a considerable amount of time with each other and offer a unique relationship that is not found with same-age peers or with adults. Siblings play an important role in the development of social skills. Cooperative and pretend play interactions between younger and older siblings can teach empathy, sharing, and cooperation (Pike, Coldwell, & Dunn, 2005, as cited in Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021) as well as negotiation and conflict resolution (Abuhatoum & Howe, 2013, as cited in Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). However, the quality of sibling relationships is often mediated by the quality of the parent-child relationship and the psychological adjustment of the child (Pike et al., 2005, as cited in Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). For instance, more negative interactions between siblings have been reported in families where parents had poor patterns of communication with their children (Brody, Stoneman, & McCoy, 1994, as cited in Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). Children who have emotional and behavioral problems are also more likely to have negative interactions with their siblings. However, the psychological adjustment of the child can sometimes be a reflection of the parent-child relationship. Thus, when examining the quality of sibling interactions, it is often difficult to tease out the separate effect of adjustment from the effect of the parent-child relationship.

While parents want positive interactions between their children, conflicts are going to arise, and some confrontations can be the impetus for growth in children’s social and cognitive skills. The sources of conflict between siblings often depend on their respective ages. Dunn and Munn (1987, as cited in Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021) revealed that over half of all sibling conflicts in early childhood were disputes about property rights. By middle childhood this starts shifting toward control over social situations, such as what games to play, disagreements about facts or opinions, or rude behavior (Howe, Rinaldi, Jennings, & Petrakos, 2002, as cited in Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). Researchers have also found that the strategies children use to deal with conflict change with age, but that is also tempered by the nature of the conflict.

Abuhatoum and Howe (2013, as cited in Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021) found that coercive strategies (e.g., threats) were preferred when the dispute centered on property rights, while reasoning was more likely to be used by older siblings and in disputes regarding control over the social situation. However, younger siblings also use reasoning, frequently bringing up the concern of legitimacy (e.g., “You’re not the boss”) when in conflict with an older sibling. This is a very common strategy used by younger siblings and is possibly an adaptive strategy in order for younger siblings to assert their autonomy (Abuhatoum & Howe, 2013, as cited in Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). A number of researchers have found that children who can use non-coercive strategies are more likely to have a successful resolution, whereby a compromise is reached and neither child feels slighted (Ram & Ross, 2008; Abuhatoum & Howe, 2013, as cited in Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021).

Not surprisingly, friendly relationships with siblings often lead to more positive interactions with peers. The reverse is also true. A child can also learn to get along with a sibling, with, as the song says “a little help from my friends” (Kramer & Gottman, 1992, as cited in Lally & Valentine-French, 2019).

Siblings. (Image by LEONARDO DASILVA is licensed under CC BY 2.0)

Peers

Relationships within the family (parent-child and siblings) are not the only significant relationships in a child’s life. Peer relationships are also important. Social interaction with another child who is similar in age, skills, and knowledge provokes the development of many social skills that are valuable for the rest of life (Bukowski, Buhrmester, & Underwood, 2011, as cited in Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). In peer relationships, children learn how to initiate and maintain social interactions with other children. They learn skills for managing conflict, such as turn-taking, compromise, and bargaining. Play also involves the mutual, sometimes complex, coordination of goals, actions, and understanding. For example, as preschoolers engage in pretend play they create narratives together, choose roles, and collaborate to act out their stories. Through these experiences, children develop friendships that provide additional sources of security and support to those provided by their parents.

Navigating dramatic play provides great opportunities to continue to develop social skills with same-age peers. (Google Images)

However, peer relationships can be challenging as well as supportive (Rubin, Coplan, Chen, Bowker, & McDonald, 2011, as cited in Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). Being accepted by other children is an important source of affirmation and self-esteem, but peer rejection can foreshadow later behavior problems (especially when children are rejected due to aggressive behavior).

Peer relationships require developing very different social and emotional skills than those that emerge in parent-child relationships. They also illustrate the many ways that peer relationships influence the growth of personality and self-concept (Leon, n.d.).

spiritual development in the preschool years

The Essential Learning Experiences for Three-, Four- and Five-Year Olds  describes spiritual development as experiencing a sense of wonder, awe, and joy, along with heightened sensory awareness and an appreciation of beauty and connection to both the natural and constructed world (Government of Saskatchewan, Ministry of Education, 2015, pp. 7–8). These experiences include developing curiosity and awareness through the senses and recognizing meaningful connections to surroundings and others (Government of Saskatchewan, Ministry of Education, 2015).

Spiritual development is not something that is directly taught as it emerges naturally through children’s everyday experiences and interactions with their environment. The role of the educator is to create and document meaningful opportunities that invite exploration, reflection, and connection. This includes planning experiences in nature, offering open-ended materials, and allowing children time to engage with their environment in ways that spark curiosity and a sense of wonder.

benefits of spiritual development

Development in the spiritual domain allows children to build a sense of identity and meaning in their lives. It helps children explore questions about who they are, what they believe, and how they connect to others and the world around them. Through spiritual development, children can experience a sense of wonder, curiosity, and appreciation for nature and everyday moments.

Spiritual development also encourages positive values such as respect, empathy, kindness, and care for others. As children begin to understand these values, they are more likely to form meaningful relationships and show compassion in their interactions.

the link between spirituality and emotional well being in children

Spirituality can play an important role in a child’s emotional well‑being. Through spiritual development, children can connect themselves with the natural world and begin to develop their own personal values and beliefs. (Government of Saskatchewan, Ministry of Education. (2024). This can be done by allowing children ample time to explore outdoors and by providing natural materials indoors. Asking open-ended questions and providing opportunities for children to engage in risky play can also help develop spirituality.

Spirituality also strengthens relationships by encouraging empathy, kindness, and a sense of belonging. These positive connections can lower feelings of loneliness or low self‑esteem. Small practices like quiet reflection or time in nature can help support a child’s overall well‑being.

In Essential Learning Experiences for Three-, Four- and Five-Year Olds an example is shared where a young girl meets her baby cousin. The girl looks closely at the baby, listens to her breathing and takes in her smell and touch. In this moment, the child develops in the spiritual domain as she has recognized the importance of this event and through understanding how special new life is, has developed deeper empathy and respect for others (Government of Saskatchewan, 2015. p. 45). This experience helped the children deepen her sense of belonging which enhances overall self-esteem.

References

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Lally, M. & Valentine-French, S. (2019). Lifespan development: A psychological perspective (2nd ed.). Retrieved from http://dept.clcillinois.edu/psy/LifespanDevelopment.pdf

Leon, A. (n.d.). Children’s development: Prenatal through adolescent development. Retrieved from https://docs.google.com/document/d/1k1xtrXy6j9_NAqZdGv8nBn_I6-lDtEgEFf7skHjvE-Y/edit

Lumen Learning. (n.d.). Physical development. In Lifespan development. Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/lifespandevelopment2/chapter/physical-development-during-early-childhood/

Paris, J., Ricardo, A., Raymond, D., & Johnson, A. (2019). Child growth and development. College of the Canyons.

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